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CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS FOUNDATION SERVICE-LEARNING
Spring 2003 (9:3) Service Learning and Youth Courts Educators and service-learning advocates know that--to be most effective--community service needs to be supported by classroom study. This issue of Service-Learning NETWORK explores the notion that youth courts can serve as learning laboratories, not just for youthful offenders but for the entire student body. By providing an ongoing forum in which students can apply critical-thinking, leadership, and civic-education skills, youth courts--also described as teen or peer courts--can help students and teachers complete the service-learning equation between classroom theory and meaningful school- and community-based practice. Author and attorney Margaret Fisher writes on the relationship between civic education, restorative justice, and youth courts. Project Profiles model three school-based programs that integrate youth courts, classroom work, and community service. Review Corner looks at two publications that serve to connect the needs of youth courts to the goals and principles of service learning and civic education. FYI offers an array of service-learning resources. Youth Courts as Service Learning By Margaret E. Fisher In a well-run government, civics, or law-related education class, students learn how to become informed citizens and participate effectively in a democracy. Teachers help students identify societal conflicts and learn how policymakers, courts, and law-enforcement agencies address them. In the classroom, students develop valuable critical-thinking skills by having to identify, analyze, and apply differing perspectives on serious issues. However, being able to name the elements of our legal system or to articulate diverse viewpoints on social issues does not necessarily teach students about the responsibilities of citizenship or how to act for the common good. Service-learning can balance out classroom work by giving young people opportunities to practice and experience the results of active citizenship. Since the early 1990s, a growing number of U.S. schools and communities have developed youth courts as learning laboratories to teach young people about citizenship and how to act for the common good. By providing a forum for students to deliver justice to peers who have engaged in first-time criminal activity or other problem behavior, youth courts put civics into practice. While youth court participants practice citizenship skills, attitudes, and behaviors, they also learn the principles and values of the American justice system. They identify and practice ethical requirements. They use key thinking and persuasion skills to form and present reasoned judgments, and they see how work and effort can affect future educational opportunities. Youth courts--also known as teen or peer courts--are diversion processes in which young people sentence their peers for actual crimes and other problem behaviors. Youth courts are not formal courts. They are processes involving youth volunteers who respond to youth misconduct by devising a disposition (or sentence) that addresses restorative justice goals (see "Restorative Justice, Youth Courts, and Service Learning,"). Youth courts often handle cases that would otherwise be referred for prosecution in juvenile court, traffic court, or the school's disciplinary process. Respondents (youth court referrals) who complete a youth-court sentence usually avoid establishing a criminal record, accumulating points on their driving record, or being written up in school misconduct records. In most cases, respondents must admit their wrongdoing or plead no contest to be eligible for youth court. A few youth courts also establish guilt or innocence. In all circumstances, a parent or guardian and the prospective respondent must give informed consent to participate in youth court. Youth courts involve volunteers from eight to 18 years of age in sentencing their peers for crimes, traffic infractions, or school-rule violations. Depending on the model (see "Youth Court Models"), young people may take on the roles of judge, prosecutor, defense attorney, community advocate, defense advocate, juror, bailiff, or clerk. In the majority of cases, youth courts are maintained through partnerships among school, local government, and community organizations. Youth engaged in youth courts usually get academic or service-learning credit at school. Academic projects can involve students in initiating a youth court program, serving on the court, and developing youth court policy manuals. Most significantly, community service--often enriched by ongoing partnerships with local government, business, or non-profits--has proven to be the most popular sentencing option for youth courts. Youth Courts and Curriculum Standards The content, skills, and dispositions that young people learn as part of their youth court experience can be linked to core-curriculum standards. Although academic standards vary from state-to-state, the following examples of linkage between youth court goals and objectives and a pair of civics standards (from the National Council on the Social Studies) illustrate the potential for youth court to deliver academic value: VI. Power, Authority and Governance: Social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of how people create and change structures of power, authority, and governance. Youth courts provide experiences that complement classroom exploration of how power, authority, and governance apply to criminal and other problem behavior. Through the mastery of the restorative justice philosophy, youth critically examine adult and juvenile criminal processes in their state, county, and community. They can play an active role is bringing a new and relevant philosophy of justice to the abstract notion of governmental authority. X. Civic Ideals and Practices: Social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of the ideals, principles, and practices of citizenship in a democratic republic. Supported by classroom work, youth court participants can learn and apply the ideals and principles of due process and equal protection. They can partner with other citizens to address school and community problems. In many school-based youth courts, students direct the planning and implementation of youth court programs and hearings, affording them additional skill- and knowledge-building opportunities while they are learning about the justice system and practicing citizenship.
Youth Driven, Youth Led Youth courts can best be guided by the motto: "Youth courts are youth driven and youth led." This means that the students who volunteer for youth court are deeply involved with other key stakeholders in establishing and promoting the court. They may sit on an advisory board with judges, probation officers, school administrators, teachers, prosecutors, defense attorneys, community organization representatives, victim groups' representatives, parents and other youth. Community members interested in youth courts benefit most by hearing from young people. Youth court members regularly make pitches to potential funders, appear in the media, and periodically lobby state legislators to establish and fund youth court programs. These experiences help develop persuasion skills, articulate the values of youth court, and model participatory democracy. By initiating and sustaining school-community partnerships, youth court participants practice citizenship with adults and can come to see these adults as people and colleagues. Youth court members also serve on school and community boards, train other youth, lobby and promote their courts, and recruit new members. Mentoring and Training Many youth courts cite the mentoring relationship between peer jury members and youth court respondents as the most important aspect of their youth court. Acting to support the respondents and to help ensure completion of the disposition, an assigned youth mentor from the jury meets weekly with each respondent to determine compliance and to help solve difficulties. Youth court participants can also mentor recruits who are new to youth court principles and procedures. For example, under the tutelage of more experienced members, recruits in a Granite Falls, Washington, youth court climb the ladder from peer jurors to top positions as lawyers and judges. Mentoring can enable new youth court members to shadow more experienced members in their roles, to participate in youth court mock hearings, and make presentations at youth court training sessions. In the state of Washington, the Council on Public Legal Education offers a Youth Court Academy. Here, young people develop, model, and improve lessons from the National Youth Court Training Package. The council staff observes and critiques these presentations. Many youth court trainees are also given opportunities to demonstrate their teaching skills at state conferences, local trainings, and outreach activities. Evaluation Some communities have evaluated the impact of youth courts on their volunteers. The Whatcom County, Washington, Teen Court was interested in the thoughts and motivations of the youth that served as jurors. They wanted to address concerns raised as to whether teens understand the social responsibility of their role in deliberating and determining sentences for their peers. Through their research, the evaluation team determined that "the qualitative responses and behavior of the juries validate the court's trust in the youth juries to maturely determine a sentence within the guidelines of the restorative justice approach." They determined further that:
Conclusion When supported by classroom work, youth courts are a nearly perfect community service-learning experience. Youth can take leadership roles in applying principles of restorative justice to their peers and carry out their responsibilities as citizens engaged with the community. Research and students' experiences validate this effort in learning about the legal process, the values and principles upon which it is based, and in using reasoning and judgment to contribute to the common good of their community. At the same time, participating youth are working as colleagues with adult authority figures, such as law enforcement, school administrators, judges, lawyers, and community organization representatives, to create a program that educates while it contributes to the common good of the community. Margaret Fisher is an attorney and author of numerous publications on community service learning and on youth courts, including Community Service Learning Guide to Street Law, Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, 1999; National Youth Court Training Package, American Bar Association, 2000; and the Roadmap on Youth Courts, American Bar Association, 2002. For additional resources for school-based youth courts, see FYI. Pima County Teen Court By Kate Meierhans Teen court in the Schools (TCIS) began in 1996 as a school-based model of Pima County Teen Court. TCIS is a year-long elective class that serves as an alternative to the disciplinary action of the school administration while it introduces students to the American justice system and supports the goals and objectives of civic education. The program is currently implemented in 16 Tucson, Arizona schools. After a student admits guilt and with the permission of a defendant's parent or guardian, the school refers the young offender to TCIS. The players in a teen court classroom include clerks, bailiffs, jurors, defense and prosecuting attorneys, and a judge. TCIS participants go through extensive classroom- and trial-based training. The curriculum for training teen court attorneys is outlined in the TCIS Manual. 1 Classroom training and the courtroom hearings allow TCIS to meet 25 of Arizona's State Standards for Education in social studies, language, and workplace skills. For example, when students argue a case in front of a jury, they meet the Language Arts Standard for Listening and Speaking LS-E: Students will "prepare and deliver an organized speech and effectively convey the message through verbal and nonverbal communications with a specific audience." Attorney training includes studying the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights, meeting Social Studies Standard 2SS-E5, "identify and describe a citizens' fundamental constitutional rights." A nine-week training schedule gives participants an understanding of the program and their roles within it. Class starts with an introduction to the concept of peer justice and an overview of the TCIS program. Instructors teach key teen court concepts. Students learn that the purpose of teen court is not to punish but to be constructive, or restorative, and to help youthful offenders make better decisions in the future. In the TCIS program, youthful offenders and other players must ask themselves, "Is this disposition, directly related to the offense?" "Will the defendant learn why his or her actions were wrong?" Lunch detention may prevent students from talking in class, but will they understand why that rule is important? Thoughtful and restorative sentencing can include dispositions in which youthful offenders are required to "sit in" on classes and record the amount of academic time wasted in keeping order. An assignment to teach a lesson helps an offender understand first hand the effects of disruptive behavior. Applying these constructive consequences can help offenders consider the effect his actions have on others and choose less disruptive behaviors in the future. Three to four weeks of class time are devoted to learning about the justice system. Most TCIS sites are middle schools; students have little previous exposure to the law. A multitude of law-related education textbooks are available to help teachers cover the basics (see FYI). Students get a taste of courtroom practice by doing mock trials. They provide an overview of what students can expect from a teen court hearing. Preparing and running a civil and criminal mock trial takes two to three weeks. After reviewing the scope and purpose of the law and completing a mock trial, youth court participants are ready to be trained for real hearings. In four weeks, students learn courtroom roles, trial procedures and objection guidelines. The judge in a teen court can be a student or an adult. TCIS partners with the law school at the University of Arizona to recruit second- and third-year law students to participate in classroom-based teen court training. These law volunteers act as resident experts and often serve as judges. Jury members are selected from the larger school population; members of the teen court class may also serve as jurors. TCIS uses the National Youth Court Center's Deliberation Process.2 This process requires juries to review facts and hold discussions before determining a sentence. Once the sentence is read and court is adjourned, the defendant meets with the class teacher or other volunteer to determine how the sentence is to be carried out. Many TCIS schools assign student probation officers to work with the respondent. Ideally, all class participants are trained in each courtroom role. This allows students to rotate between duties. To accomplish this, participating students must pass a bar exam and be trained to serve as attorneys. The TCIS Bar Exam covers legal vocabulary, order of trial, and case preparation. An emphasis is put on case preparation where students must learn to write opening statements, direct and cross-examinations, and closing arguments. Because TCIS does not determine guilt or innocence, the order of trial and a few other aspects of courtroom protocol have been modified to suit the program. Teachers are encouraged to make such changes so the program fits with their school and their class. Throughout the year, teachers are encouraged to make connections with the community. In addition to the student volunteers, local attorneys, school resource officers, and safe-schools probation officers visit most TCIS schools. Other guest speakers include court reporters, K9 Units, judges, and Juvenile Detention Officers. Past field trips have included visiting the Juvenile Detention Center for a tour and to observe detention hearings, observing trials at the Arizona State Superior Court, visiting the FBI's local Field Office, and participating in the Tucson Police Department's Challenge and Leadership Course. The skills that students learn in teen court are necessary to all citizens and teachers and help students make those connections to the community outside of their school. Plus volunteers tend to enjoy being a part of the program. Scott Schwartz is a third- year law student who has been volunteering with TCIS for two years. He says, "[teen court] is an excellent experience for the students. It provides skills that you can't get in a normal classroom." For more information, contact Kate
Meierhans, Pima County Teen Court, (520) 884-8799. Dorsey High School Teen Court: Linking Courts to Classrooms The Dorsey High School Law and Public Service Magnet is a four-year program for ninth- to twelfth-grade students. Formed as a partnership among the Los Angeles Unified School District, community organizations, magnet students, and their parents, the Law Magnet includes a school-based youth court. This youth, or teen court, does triple duty as an effective intervention for school misbehaviors and first-time offenders, as a conduit to introduce students to meaningful community service, and as a learning laboratory for students studying law, public service, and citizenship. Service-Learning NETWORK recently interviewed Dimone Watson, the coordinator for the Dorsey High School Teen Court and the Law and Public Service Magnet. NETWORK: When did the teen court project begin? WATSON: Two teachers started our teen court in 1995 in conjunction with the Dorsey High Law Magnet as a way to teach about law. NETWORK: What was the goal? WATSON: The goal of the teen court was to provide a service to the school and community and give students an opportunity to become involved and learn more about what goes on in their community. NETWORK: Describe the Dorsey High Teen Court. How does it work? WATSON: There are 220 students in the law magnet. Each student is expected to participate in the court four times a year as part of his or her community service. The students fill several roles. Up to 12 of them sit on the jury. There are also active roles for a student clerk, a bailiff, a courtroom coordinator, and student translators. The Dorsey High Teen Court meets twice a month during the school year. Judge David Wesley from the Los Angeles County Superior Court is the presiding judge. A Los Angeles County probation officer assigned to Dorsey determines if a case is appropriate for teen court. If so, the probation officer requires the teen and parent to sign a release allowing the case to be heard in teen court. Most of the defendants are first time offenders' accused of crimes such as vandalism, battery, petty theft, and shoplifting. We sometimes see more serious cases such as prostitution and drug possession. The defendants come from neighboring schools. None of the defendants are from Dorsey High. Because it's a real court, jury members should not know the defendants. You don't want any bias. The jury hears the case. They are encouraged to question the defendant and parents. After the case has been presented, the jury retires to deliberate. They make a majority determination of guilt or innocence and recommend a sentence. If defendants are found guilty, they serve a six-month probation period. Sentenced offenders are put on curfew, are prohibited from hanging out with certain people, and restricted from going to certain places in the community. In addition, they are required to write a letter of apology to the injured party, complete a prescribed number of community-service hours, and attend counseling sessions with their parents. NETWORK: What do think the students learn in teen court? WATSON: In the ninth grade, students in the Law Magnet are required to take an introductory law class where they learn about the legal system, the need for law, the role of lawyers, legal vocabulary, critical thinking skills, and more. Teen court offers an opportunity for students to apply what they learn to real-life situations in the community. In relation to this classroom work, Dorsey High's teen court serves as a laboratory. The teen court helps students understand more about their community. It helps them understand that they have to actively participate in changing their communities. It makes them more active. It creates better citizens. This is particularly important because of where our students live and go to school. NETWORK: What has worked? WATSON: There are several important things that have made the court successful. Probably most critical: Dorsey High Teen Court has a really good judge. Superior Court Judge David Wesley is very dedicated to Dorsey's teen court. He finds teaching opportunities in every case. He pushes students to use sound critical-thinking methods and to take their justice roles seriously. He also debriefs each decision, but I have never seen him overturn a jury decision. Student involvement is also very important. Students don't just sit in the courtroom as spectators; they are actively involved. They take on the responsibility to running the court. There is a lawyer present who interprets the law, but the students arrive at a verdict. In addition, the court exposes students to different people and students come to see their teachers in a different light. Teen court also offers students an opportunity to do service on their campus. It makes it easier to complete their service hours. Finally, former defendants often participate. This is new and shows that many youthful offenders come to understand that this program has made a difference in their lives and the life of their school and community. NETWORK: What are your challenges? WATSON: The main challenge is to keep students interested in the teen court. Past ninth grade, student participation starts to wane. To address this problem, we now require magnet students to participate in teen court. They have to show up four times a year. The required attendance has benefits for everyone. For example, seniors who have participated regularly in teen court have much more to add because they are older and more experienced about teen court and its goals and procedures. Space can be a problem for schools. Dorsey High has a courtroom, built specially to house the teen court. This court was built through a collaboration between LAUSD magnet office of integration and a private citizen. Having a dedicated space with judge's bench, jury box, and spectator seating goes a long way toward underscoring the fact that youth court is real. Other schools use regular classrooms which can create scheduling conflicts and more. NETWORK: What services do your law magnet participants provide? WATSON: Probably their most important service is that of helping their peers stay out of the juvenile justice system. If teen court did not exist, youthful offenders would be forced to go through the juvenile justice system where their misbehaviors would be the start of a criminal record. Instead, youthful offenders are reviewed by a jury of their peers. The defendants get punished with sentencing options, but they also learn about the justice system and their own culpability. These young people take justice very seriously and the teen court process becomes a learning experience for everyone, students, defendants, parents, everyone. For more information, call Dimone Watson at the Dorsey High Law and Public Service Magnet at (323) 290-6132. Durango Teen Court:Law Class Laboratory By Molly Martin Durango Teen Court provides teachers and students with an ideal service learning opportunity by allowing teens to help lessen teen crime in the community. The work is authentic: Young people learn about the American legal system and make significant contributions to their peers and their community by serving as attorneys, judges, bailiffs, and juries. Their task is to review crimes committed by their peers and come up with appropriate sentencing options. Durango Teen Court was initiated by a lawyer-turned-teacher named Chuck Owens. Owens believed that his text-based street and business law classes might become more relevant if he could integrate a teen court into his curriculum. He called a meeting of community members, officials from the judicial system, teachers, and school administrators and the local bar association. He presented his audience with material from the National Youth Court Center. (See "FYI,".) Seeing the potential value in such a program, the high school administrators authorized Owens to establish a Durango Teen Court. A steering committee was formed consisting of attorneys, judicial system staff, school administrators, parents, students, and key community members. I was hired as teen court coordinator, allowing Owens to focus on his primary role as classroom teacher. Teens interested in classes in law or personal rights sign up for these elective classes. As teen court coordinator, I attend classes led by Owens to ensure that teen-court training and practice is linked to the class curriculum. In the Durango Teen Court, training is progressive and developmental. Minimal training is required for volunteers who wish to serve as bailiffs or jurors. Jurors and bailiffs are eligible to become attorneys; attorneys are eligible to become judges. Additional training is required at each stage. Teen court defendants, often called respondents, are referred to the Durango Teen Court by the principal. School-based offenses include fights, insubordination, bullying, and theft. Other cases are referred from the local district attorney's office and municipal court. Judicial referrals are generally first-time misdemeanor offenses in which the defendant has already pled guilty to the charge. Teen court hearings are held at the Durango County Courthouse one evening a week. Parents and guardians are required to attend. Proceedings are similar to those of an adult court with opening statements, direct examination, submission of evidence, and closing arguments. Because defendants must plead guilty to charges before they qualify for teen court, verdicts are not the domain of the jury. The jury's job is to decide what punishment is fair and restorative in light of the crime committed. After the jury deliberates, the sentence, or disposition, is read. Defendants usually complete their Teen Court sentences by the agreed-upon date. Durango Teen Court dispositions include community service, substance abuse classes, monetary restitution, letters of apology, and police ride-alongs. Community service and essays relating to the offense are popular sentencing options. What community-service dispositions are handed out? The respondents frequently choose community-based organizations such as the local soup kitchen and homeless shelter. The case is closed, the charges are dropped, and the defendant is under no further obligation. The teen court proceedings are debriefed the following day with follow-up discussions. Law class students and teen court participants reflect on how the trial went and whether the sentence was appropriate. The classroom debrief also allows teen court attorneys to get feedback from jury members on how they presented their cases. Because the law saturates our lives, teen courts make classroom study of the law relevant by addressing real issues that affect real people in real situations. It is the perfect avenue to provide active learning experiences to explore rights and responsibilities, confront and resolve disputes, and discuss and analyze public issues. In addition, as key participants in the justice process, young people have the opportunity to apply the law to real defendants, to analyze and argue a case, and to shape the legal process and its outcomes. Participation in these efforts helps young people open the door to civic involvement in a law-based society. Molly Martin is the Durango, Colorado, teen court coordinator. For more information, contact Molly Martin at (970) 259-1630 x 364. Restorative Justice, Youth Courts, and Service Learning Balanced and restorative justice lies at the core of the youth court philosophy. A comparison between service-learning and restorative justice yields many similarities. Although there are many definitions, most educators would agree that service learning is a teaching strategy that applies classroom-learned skills and knowledge to student-identified school or community problems. As they identify these problems, students learn that they are part of a community. As an ongoing part of the process, students frequently reflect on what they have learned about themselves, their community, and the problems they are seeking to address. In this way, students develop a sense of caring for others and a better understanding of their role as active citizens. Service-Learning Goals and Objectives 1 Students will be able to:
According to the Balanced and Restorative Justice Project 2 restorative justice is a new way of thinking about and responding to crime that emphasizes one fundamental fact: Crime damages people, communities, and relationships. If crime is about harm, a justice process should emphasize repairing the harm. As a vision for systemic juvenile justice reform, restorative justice suggests that the response to youth crime must also strike a balance between the needs of victims, offenders, and communities and that each should be actively involved to the greatest possible extent in the justice process. Balanced and Restorative Justice Goals and Objectives Youth court respondents will be able to:
1 Active Citizenship
Today, Close Up Foundation, Washington, D.C. and Constitutional Rights
Foundation, Los Angeles
Constitutional Rights Foundation/Constitutional Rights Foundation Chicago,
2002. Educators have long known the value of community service. Beyond its value to the community, service can help provide young people with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes they need to become active and effective citizens. Giving Back--A Community Service Manual for Youth Courts is designed to help teachers and youth court coordinators plan and implement meaningful community-service sentencing options for respondents. The manual accomplishes this objective by applying school-based, service-learning methods to community service. User-friendly activities and procedures will help school- and community-based youth court practitioners transform community service into a civic-education experience. Handouts and procedures are organized into three steps.
Additional components are built into Giving Back to help teachers and youth court coordinators verify completed community-service hours through Check Points and to help students reflect on their community-service experience with a Stop and Think activity. A resource section includes access to the National Youth Court Center, links to civic-education resources, Street Law Lessons, Corporation for National Service, and other national community-service programs and campaigns. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) and the National Youth Court Center (NYCC) has underwritten the development of this new community-service manual. Copies are available free of charge. For more information, contact the National Youth Court Center, (859) 244-8193; e-mail: nycc@csg.org; or visit the NYCC web site.
Street Law, Inc., Washington, D.C. 2002. Street Law for Youth Courts: Educational Workshops has been developed by Street Law, Inc. to help youth court programs initiate a law-related education program as a sentencing option for young offenders who appear before school- or community-based youth courts. The Street Law lessons are also designed to help train volunteers--clerks, bailiffs, lawyers, judges, and jurors. Although these lessons are intended to bring an educational component to youth courts, they can be useful to educators who are interested in using youth courts as real-life, learning laboratories for civics, government, or criminal-justice courses. While Street Law for Youth Courts teaches about crimes and punishments, it also explores the need for law and how the legal system protects individual and community rights including life, liberty, property, safety, and security. These interactive lessons focus on the most frequent offenses for which youth are referred to youth court: theft, possession of alcohol, possession of marijuana, vandalism, and traffic violations. They also include an overview of the purpose of law, the relationship between laws and values, the juvenile justice system and juvenile rights, the roles and responsibilities of juries, and the consequences of crime, conflict resolution, and more. In addition to the lesson plans, Street Law for Youth Courts includes an introduction to law-related education, focused teaching strategies, and reproducible handouts for youth participants. This publication is available free of charge. For more information, contact the National Youth Court Center, (859) 244-8193; e-mail: nycc@csg.org; or visit the NYCC web site. Youth Court Resources National Youth Court Center Teen Court in the Schools Manual: A Resource Guide for Implementing
a Middle-School Teen Court Program Crime & the Law: A Look at the Criminal Justice System by Maxine
Phillips, Peoples Publishing Group, Saddle Back, New Jersey, 2003. Everyday Law for Young Citizens: A Working Guide by Eric B. Lipson,
J.D, and Greta Barclay Lipson, Ed.D. Teaching & Learning Company,
Carthage, IL. 2000. Criminal Justice in America, 3rd Edition Grades 9-12, Constitutional
Rights Foundation, Los Angeles, 2000. Online Resouce War In Iraq:Online Lessons and Links The war in Iraq raises critical questions for the classroom and the community. Constitutional Rights Foundation has prepared a focused series of online lessons, research links, and service-project suggestions. We will continue to add new online lessons, research links, and project suggestions as events unfold in America, Iraq, the Middle East, and around the world. Online Lessons War and International Law
War and the Media
Helping Students Cope
Web Links Statistics and Information | Web Directories | Maps | Encyclopedias | Gulf War (1991) | Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) | Hussein | Humanitarian Groups | Anti-War Movement | Doves Who Became Hawks | Weblogs | Analyses of Media Coverage | Bush Doctrine | Reporters in the Field Jerome Coben, President; Todd Clark, Executive Director; Marshall Croddy, Director of Program and Materials Development; Susan Philips, Consultant; Charles Degelman, Editor; Sal Arrona, Program Coordinator; Andrew Costly, Production Manager. ©2003, Constitutional Rights Foundation, 601 South Kingsley Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90005 (213) 487-5590 Fax (213) 386-0459 www.crf-usa.org |